Medieval literature of India

Medieval Indian literature

Medieval Indian literature bore significant influences from diverse factors, with Hindu and Muslim religions playing dominant roles. This period was characterized by incessant change and complexity in ordinary life, as migratory populations brought with them varying beliefs, customs, and lifestyles, turning India into a melting pot of cultures. Amidst these dynamic shifts, philosophical movements gained prominence, and indigenous resources and responses were honed to navigate uncertain times.

The result was a vibrant kaleidoscope of language and literature, a true reflection of the competition between Hinduism and Islam, the two dominant religions of the era. Medieval Indian literature flourished by embracing these themes, crafting its unique history in the process.

Emergence of Bhakti Movement

The Medieval period witnessed a plethora of social movements challenging the prevailing orthodoxy and dogmatism propagated by the custodians of both Hindu and Muslim religions. These reformist movements garnered widespread support and were collectively known as the Bhakti Movement. Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikhism, Kabir, and numerous Sufi saints were prominent figures within this movement. Together, they advocated religious harmony and condemned intolerance, casteism, and arrogance. Armed with their writings, verses, and oral teachings, these reformers played a significant role in bridging the emotional divide between practitioners of the two dominant religions in India during that era.

Medieval Indian Literature in Mughal Era

In medieval India, orthodoxy held sway, restricting the scope of learning to some extent. Nonetheless, medieval Indian literature finds its earliest expression in authoritative biographies. Baburnama, penned by Mughal Emperor Babur himself, presents Hindustan in grand prose, albeit with a somewhat distorted perspective. Other significant biographical works from the Mughal era include Ain-i-Akbari and Akbarnama, composed by Abul-Fazl, offering valuable insights into the historical landscape.

Moreover, the verses of Sufi saints and saint poets of the Bhakti Movement in medieval India gave birth to a literature that resonated with the aspirations of the masses. This literary outpouring marked a sensitive portrayal of the people's yearnings and beliefs.

The Mughal era also witnessed the emergence of numerous regional languages such as Hindi, Urdu, Marathi, and Bengali, each attaining distinct identities. These languages later played a pivotal role in generating a vast body of classic regional literature.

Despite the constraints of orthodoxy, medieval Indian literature achieved notable milestones, leaving a lasting impact on the cultural and literary heritage of the subcontinent.

Recurrence of Classics in Medieval Indian Literature

Early medieval Indian literature showcased a striking feature - the emergence of several new languages that played a vital role in revitalizing and recreating ancient Indian classics. Epics like Ramayana and Mahabharata experienced a revival in these newly developed languages. Additionally, other ancient works like Panchatantra and numerous Puranas and myths were retold, bridging a connection between these timeless classics and the modern tongues.

Renowned authors like Kampan in Tamil, Krittivas Ojha in Bengali, Sarala Das in Oriya, Ezhuttacchan in Malayalam, Tulsi Das in Hindi, and Nannaya in Telugu emerged as prominent figures who contributed significantly to the dissemination of these literary treasures among the common masses. Their efforts not only breathed new life into ancient works but also nurtured the growth and distinction of these regional languages, fostering a diverse literary landscape in early medieval India.

Influences on Medieval Indian Literature

The evolution of medieval Indian literature was significantly influenced by the topography of the land. With the transition from migratory to settled living, nature's impact on the landscapes, seasons, flora, and fauna shaped the literary works during the Middle Ages. Writers drew immense inspiration from the geographical locations of their communities, evident in the language and style of early Manipuri writers. The rivers of India, including Brahmaputra, Ganga, Yamuna, Godavari, and Kaveri or Sutlej, were celebrated in medieval literature. Nature subtly permeated literary works, with the hills of Manipur, the rivers of Upper India, the desert of Rajasthan, the panorama of Konkan and Kerala, and the snow-capped peaks of Kashmir providing staple poetic themes.

Medieval Indian literature also exhibited regional groupings based on ethnic similarity or geographical proximity, sometimes facilitated through mutual interactions. Assamese, Bengali, and Oriya showcased such grouping, as did Assamese, Bengali, and Maithili, or even Gujarati, Hindi, and Rajasthani. It was observed that at times, the same writers used different languages to express their literary prowess. Tamil and Malayalam formed another sub-group, while Kannada and Telugu were the last to join this cluster. The prevalence of multiple versions of popular stories, like Heer-Ranjha in Punjabi, Sassi and Punnu in Sindhi, or Radha and Krishna in Oriya, Hindi, or Sanskrit, exemplified the continuous interactions between speakers of these languages.

Love and war emerged as contemporary and forward-looking themes in medieval Indian literature. Amidst conflicts and tensions, love, beyond the love of God, became a staple theme in various poetic forms like Ghazals, Mathnavis, Kirtans, Padas, Tirhutis, and Abhangas. In addition to recounting ancient battles and conflicts from epics and Puranas, the poets of that era were also inspired by contemporary warfare experiences. Heroic sentiments echoed in Punjabi, Rajasthani, Tamil, and Marathi literatures, while the portrayal of failed love was as inspiring as triumphant love. The folk narratives of Heer-Ranjha, Sassi-Punnu, and Yusuf-Zulaikha legends silently glorified the tragic elements of human emotions.

Medieval Indian literature, with its multidimensional themes and regional influences, remains a testament to the rich cultural tapestry of the subcontinent, drawing inspiration from the land, its people, and the profound human experiences of love and war.

Expansion of Medieval Indian Literature

Medieval Indian literature witnessed the emergence of several sectarian works that celebrated and promoted unorthodox regional beliefs. In Bengali, the Charyapadas, Tantric verses from the 12th century, and Lilacharitra in Marathi are prime examples. In Kannada and later in Gujarati, Jain romances emerged as the first indigenous works, portraying the lives of Jain saints with influences from Sanskrit and Pali themes. Similarly, Rajasthani literature depicted Bardic tales of chivalry and heroic resistance against the first Muslim invasions, like the 12th-century epic poem Prithirajaraso by Chand Bardai of Lahore. Moreover, the northern Indian cults of Krishna and Rama found their earliest tinctures in vernacular languages. Jayadeva's 12th-century poems, including Gitagovinda, and Vidyapati's religious love poems in Maithili significantly influenced the cult of Radha-Krishna in Bengal.

During the same period, the Bhakti Movement, initiated in South India, gained prominence and was led by the 63 Nayanars (devotees of Shiva) and 12 Alvars (devotees of Vishnu). Their devotional hymns, deeply connected to medieval Indian literature, overflowed with ecstasy and lyrical expressions. Andal, the only female Vaishnava saint, particularly stood out with her hymns expressing bridal mysticism in the Hindu religion.

The path of devotion paved by these mystics later influenced the philosophies of Ramanuja and Madhavacharya. The Virashaiva Movement, propagated by Basavanna, also left a significant impact. The Haridasa Movement, originating in present-day Karnataka, presented itself in two groups - Vyasakuta and Dasakuta. The Bhakti Movement became the focal point of medieval Indian literature, leading to various extraordinary revolutions. It inspired numerous poets, and in Kannada, it gave rise to Purandara Dasa and Kanaka Dasa, whose contributions to Carnatic music remain invaluable and irreplaceable.

The Bhakti Movement spread spontaneously in North India, focusing on the worship of Lord Rama and Lord Krishna. Both Hindu and Muslim forms of Bhakti Movement coexisted harmoniously and gained immense popularity among the masses. Between the 14th and 17th centuries A.D., the Bhakti Movement swept across North India, and saints like Vallabhacharya, Mira Bai, Kabir, Tulsidas, Tukaram, and others played pivotal roles in amplifying the scope of medieval Indian literature, penning their works in vernacular prose and poetry in the regional languages.

Medieval Bengali Literature

In Bengal, significant works on the theme of Bhakti, such as Shyama Sangeet composed by Ram Prasad Sen, hold a crucial place in Bengali culture to this day. These compositions are dedicated to Goddess Kali and serve as medieval Indian literary expressions, conveying allegorical messages through spontaneous verses. It is believed that Ram Prasad Sen had a personal connection with Goddess Kali, which he expressed through his poetry. Another influential figure in the Bengali Bhakti movement was Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, who introduced his philosophy known as Achintya Bheda Bhed, emphasizing the concept of inconceivable and simultaneous oneness and difference.

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