The Bronze Age - World History

The Bronze Age ( 3000 ) Unification of Egypt.

Around the year 3000 a new wave of nomads invaded the fertile crescent, just as the Sumerians had done a thousand years before. This time they did not come from the eastern mountains, but were Semitic peoples from Arabia. Probably, living conditions must have become more arduous, or there must have been an overpopulation, or some tribal conflict. Be that as it may, several of these tribes rushed north with unusual impetus, a phenomenon that was to be repeated several times in history.

The Sumerians managed to keep the Semites away from their main cities, along the lower Euphrates, but lost many cities in Upper Mesopotamia, such as Mari, which had been founded recently. Other groups of Semites settled on the north coast of Canaan and throughout Syria. As had happened with the Sumerian occupation, the conquered territories entered a period of decline from which it would take centuries to recover. The area that recovered most quickly was the north coast of Canaan, whose new inhabitants soon dedicated themselves to trade by sea, and are what we know today as Phoenicians. It is likely that the crisis caused some Canaanites to leave their homeland. Perhaps some went to the island of Crete, which would explain that around this time he began to use copper and build good ships with which he began trade relations with Egypt and Canaan.

 

For their part, the Sumerians continued to progress. The third millennium began with a crucial discovery: the possibility of mixing copper with tin to make bronze.Copper is a rather soft metal, and tin much more so, but mixing the two in proper proportion produces an alloy much stronger than the two ingredients. This made it possible to make much more effective weapons than the previous ones. With this, the Sumerians had the possibility of definitively imposing themselves on the barbarian peoples that threatened them, but the city-states preferred to use the new weapons to confront each other and formed increasingly better organized armies. The merchants developed a complex system of weights and measures. A kind of postal service was even established.

Egypt continued to receive and assimilate Sumerian knowledge. Shortly after 3000 he had adapted his writing system. Instead of writing on clay tablets, the Egyptians used a more sophisticated support: from some reeds that grew abundantly on the banks of the Nile, they extracted fibers that they interwoven into several layers, soaked them in water, pressed them and with this they obtained sheets called papyri,where it was very easy to write with ink. Writing on papyrus was much more comfortable than on clay, so the Egyptian signs did not become schematic, like the Sumerians. On the contrary, they represented very clear figures, such as eagles, eyes, etc. Of course, they followed the Sumerian principle that each word corresponded to a sign, with all the complexity and elitism that this entails. Egyptian writing is known as hieroglyphic writing. Undoubtedly writing was indispensable for the organization of the Egyptian state.

The Egyptian kings developed an ostentation and luxury unheard of until then. In part it was necessary: ​​the more luxurious the monarchy was, the more convinced the people were of its divine nature and the more fervent their devotion. This was reflected in his concern for the afterlife: After death, the soul made a journey to the great Hall of Judgment. If she arrived safe and sound (which could be achieved with the proper prayers and rites), her life was judged and if she was acquitted of all evil she would win eternal glory alongside Osiris. Apparently, to achieve eternal life it was necessary to preserve the corpse, so the Egyptians developed a sophisticated mummification technique to keep corpses incorrupt for a long period of time. The coffins, or sarcophagi, were deposited in oblong brick constructions calledmastabas. Statues of the deceased were included and the walls were decorated with scenes from his life (perhaps to advocate his virtues). The idea of ​​life after death was understood in a very literal sense, since food and drinks were also deposited, as well as the wealth of the deceased. Royal burials must have been lavish ceremonies. Many tombs of kings of the first two dynasties are in Memphis, despite the fact that the official capital was Tinis. This may mean that some monarchs actually ruled from Memphis, or perhaps that it was more convenient to hold the spectacle in a place where the inhabitants of Upper and Lower Egypt could easily go. Soon the influential courtiers considered that they too should "enjoy" this kind of ritual, and demanded to be mummified. There must have been a certain competition as to who had the most lavish tomb with the most treasures. This gave rise to the figure of the grave robber, who easily obtained great treasures of gold and silver by plundering tombs, despite the fact that in doing so he horrified his devoted countrymen. Laws were promulgated against them, divine vengeance was threatened, attempts were made to hide the graves well and seal their entrances, but few of them have reached our days intact. There must have been a certain competition as to who had the most lavish tomb with the most treasures. This gave rise to the figure of the grave robber, who easily obtained great treasures of gold and silver by plundering tombs, despite the fact that in doing so he horrified his devoted countrymen. Laws were promulgated against them, divine vengeance was threatened, attempts were made to hide the graves well and seal their entrances, but few of them have reached our days intact. There must have been a certain competition as to who had the most lavish tomb with the most treasures. This gave rise to the figure of the grave robber, who easily obtained great treasures of gold and silver by plundering tombs, despite the fact that in doing so he horrified his devoted countrymen. Laws were promulgated against them, divine vengeance was threatened, attempts were made to hide the graves well and seal their entrances, but few of them have reached our days intact.

The desert gradually increased its extension. Lake Moeris, the center of wealth for an important region of Egypt, threatened to dry up. The Egyptians built a system of canals that connected it to the Nile, an impressive feat of engineering thanks to which the area retained its former prosperity. The problems of land distribution made geometry prosper (when the Nile overflowed, the divisions were erased and had to be restored), commerce promoted arithmetic, the desire to predict the annual overflow of the Nile led to the study of astronomy. around the year 2800the Egyptians adopted a 365-day calendar, which improved on the Sumerian one, which consisted of only 12 months of 30 days (360 in total).

At that time, the most powerful Sumerian city was Kish, which had been founded at the end of the fourth millennium. Its pre-eminence could not have lasted more than a few decades and was soon superseded by Uruk, but its short-lived greatness left its mark, as later Sumerian kings called themselves "Kings of Kish" even though they did not reign in that city . . Among the kings of Uruk, the most famous was Gilgamesh, fifth king of the I Uruk dynasty, who reigned around the year 2700. Meanwhile, the city of Kish was absorbed by the Semites. Nearby Nippur, on the other hand, remained Sumerian, because, although it had lost its political importance, it continued to be a religious center that united the Sumerians in the worship of the god Enlil.

Around 2680 there was a second dynastic change in Egypt (of the first change that gave rise to the Second Dynasty we know little more than the fact that it occurred). The first king of the III dynasty was Djoser, who definitively established the capital in Memphis, confirming a trend already marked by previous dynasties. With Djoser ends a first period of Egyptian history known as the archaic period and the so-called Old Kingdom begins .The new dynasty took the luxury of the royal house to extremes never seen before. Perhaps the new kings feared that the people would be suspicious of the change of dynasty, which is why they saw the need to confirm their divine nature through unusual ostentation. Among Djoser's advisors was Imhotep,who we can consider as the first known scientist in history. Over time many legends were created around him. It was said that he was an almost miraculous doctor, it was said that he was able to predict a great period of drought, which allowed storing wheat reserves that saved the people from famine. Regardless of what these legends may have in truth, Imhotep was the first architect of whom we have evidence. He built Djoser's tomb, which was made of stone and not brick. Originally it was 63 meters on each side and 80 meters high, but it must not have seemed grand enough to Djoser, so Imhotep enlarged it until the base measured 121 x 109 meters, then built a smaller one on top of the first, and then other, up to six floors with a total height of about 60 meters. The monument had other auxiliary structures around it, and the whole was surrounded by a wall of about 550 by 275 meters. Although quite deteriorated, Djoser's mastaba survives to this day. It's over on the2650, making it almost 5,000 years old.

The Sumerian cities decreased in number, but the remaining ones increased in size. Around this time, the city of Ur achieved supremacy in Sumer, at the expense of Uruk. The kings and queens of Ur were buried in monumental tombs, accompanied by treasures and servants. The Sumerians founded the city of Assur in Upper Mesopotamia, next to the Tigris, which prospered rapidly.

Meanwhile, Egypt began to exploit neighboring areas: it extracted copper from Sinai and imported all kinds of products from Nubia, the region located to the south: wheat, cattle, ivory, ebony, ostrich feathers, leopard and panther skins, etc.

Around 2614 , the IV dynasty was established in Egypt . Its first king was Snefruwho, moved by the apparent need for ostentation that accompanied each change of dynasty, decided to build a mastaba that surpassed Djoser's. His had eight stories, but Snefru had the steps on each story filled in so that the faces presented a uniform triangular shape. He then covered the entire structure with brilliant white limestone. The result was an impressive pyramid unmatched by any previous monument. Then he began to build another pyramid without floors, in which the section gradually decreased at a constant rate. However, from a certain height the inclination was significantly increased. It seems that he had to vary the angle because the foundations did not resist and cracks appeared. It also seems that there was a work accident in which many lives were lost, and the construction was abandoned. Then he did another test that did conclude, also varying the incline to decrease weight and increase stability. Cracks appeared that did not ensure it would last for many years, so the pyramid was used as a false tomb, in an attempt to fool would-be tomb raiders. In a third attempt he already achieved a stable pyramid, always with the most inclined tip. and the building was abandoned. Then he did another test that did conclude, also varying the incline to decrease weight and increase stability. Cracks appeared that did not ensure that it would last many years, so the pyramid was used as a false tomb, in an attempt to deceive would-be tomb raiders. In a third attempt he already achieved a stable pyramid, always with the most inclined tip. and the building was abandoned. Then he did another test that did conclude, also varying the incline to decrease weight and increase stability. Cracks appeared that did not ensure that it would last many years, so the pyramid was used as a false tomb, in an attempt to deceive would-be tomb raiders. In a third attempt he already achieved a stable pyramid, always with the most inclined tip. in an attempt to fool would-be tomb raiders. In a third attempt he already achieved a stable pyramid, always with the most inclined tip. in an attempt to fool would-be tomb raiders. In a third attempt he already achieved a stable pyramid, always with the most inclined tip.

On the other hand, Snefru organized an army that would strengthen Egypt's domination over neighboring regions, especially Nubia and Sinai. He created the figure of the vizier or prime minister, in whose charge he left the army and a police force. He also surrounded himself with a court of high officials. Around this time the priests of Ra began to gain influence. Ra was the chief god of the city of Heliopolis, a little north of Memphis, in Lower Egypt. Instead, the main god of Memphis was Ptah, who for the Egyptians was the creator of the world. However, the priests of Ra managed to make him the main god of the Egyptian pantheon. Snefru was declared the son of Ra, a title that his successors would also hold,

Snefru sent ships to Phoenicia. His main contact was Byblos, from where he imported, among other things, resins and metals. Another highly valued product from the area was wood. The cedars of LebanonThey enjoyed great prestige in the ancient world. The Egyptians were not great sailors. His ships, which until then had only sailed the calm waters of the Nile, cautiously skirted the Mediterranean coast as far as Phoenicia and back the same way. Snefru also sent expeditions through the Red Sea, which reached Arabia and Somalia, from where they brought incense, resins, and lapis lazuli. The island of Cyprus became a major supplier of copper. Around this time the island of Crete entered the Bronze Age. A new civilization arose, known as the Minoan culture (in an early stage known as the Old Minoan period).which also maintained close trade relations with Egypt.

 

Snefru's successor was Khufu, better known by the Greek version of his name: Cheops. Khufu built the largest of all the pyramids. It was located near the city of Giza. The work was finished around 2580. The base was square, about 227 meters on each side, and its height was 147 meters. It was made up of more than two million stone blocks, most of which weighed more than two tons. These granite blocks were extracted from quarries in the south, near the first cataract of the Nile, and were transported by boat on the river. The Egyptians claimed that it took 20 years to build and that 100,000 men worked on it.

Khufu was succeeded by his eldest son Jafre (or Khafre) and then by his youngest son Menkure (or Menkaure). Both built monumental pyramids next to his father's, although a little smaller. Khafre's was finished around 2530, and his brother's around 2510. The three pyramids formed the same architectural complex: each one was surrounded by smaller mastabas, intended for other members of the royal family or the court, there were temples, statues and other monuments. Perhaps the most famous is the Sphinx, a gigantic figure with the body of a lion and a human head that the Greeks thought was of a woman, but apparently it is an image of Khafre.

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